Academic advising is the collaborative process by which students engage with a member of their institution (professor, mentor, or advisor) to receive direction or advice on academic or personal decisions. The purpose of this process is to counsel or inform students, so they get the most of their college experience. Advising includes establishing educational goals or milestones based on the student’s interests and intentions.
Adult learners are known by a variety of names: nontraditional students, adult students, returning adults, adult returners, mature learners, comebackers. Common characteristics: usually 25 or older; delayed entering college for at least one year following high school; usually employed full-time; often have a family and dependents to support; may have started college as a traditional student but needed to take time off to address other responsibilities; looking to enhance their professional lives or may be switching careers; have more experience than traditional students, having already started a career or served in the military; more mature, independent, and motivated than traditional students.
An assessment approach in which instructors and learners share responsibility for evaluating learning. Instead of relying solely on an instructor-assigned grade or a final score in a course, collaborative grading may incorporate student self-assessment, peer feedback, negotiated evaluation criteria, reflective discussions, and shared review of evidence to determine the achievement of learning outcomes. This approach emphasizes assessment as a dialogue in which learners actively participate in judging their own progress and demonstrating their knowledge, skills, and competencies. The goal is to make assessment more transparent, promote learner ownership, strengthen critical reflection, and improve understanding of quality standards. This practice does not eliminate the instructor’s responsibility for final evaluation.
Collaborative grading has gained attention in higher education with growing interest in learner-centered teaching, competency-based education, authentic assessment, and project-based learning. It reflects the view that assessment should support learning rather than simply measure it. Examples of collaborative grading include:
Students help develop assignment rubrics before work begins.
Learners complete structured self-assessments that contribute to final evaluations.
Peer review of projects use common evaluation criteria.
Faculty-student conferences review portfolios or capstone work.
Team-based evaluation of collaborative projects use agreed-upon performance standards.
Refers to the policies and practices conducted by a higher education institution when a student transfers to it from another institution. The receiving institution typically evaluates the student’s transcript and decides which courses will transfer and apply to the student’s degree or certificate completion, which courses will transfer as elective credits, and which courses will not transfer. These processes are carried out manually by many institutions and can create financial disincentives for awarding degree-applicable credit given the complexity of some transfer situations. The field is moving toward sharing digital credentials to speed up the process and reduce costs for institutions, however, progress is moving slowly.
Equity means that no matter what a student’s background, language, race, economic profile, gender, learning capability, disability or family history, each student has the opportunity to get the support and resources they need to achieve their educational goals. While the terms equity and equality are often used interchangeably, there are differences between the two. Equality focuses on ensuring students are presented with the same educational opportunities throughout their scholastic career; however, this approach doesn’t take into consideration that even with those opportunities, different students will have different needs in order to succeed. Equity focuses on taking those opportunities presented to students and infusing them with support and resources to turn the education system into a level playing field. This means that disadvantaged students will get the support they need to become equal to students who are not disadvantaged.
Refers to a spectrum of learners who meet different combinations of parents and caregivers, whether they attended college or graduated, what degree they completed, and more factors. Because there are significant differences in knowledge and other resources between students with one parent who earned a bachelor’s degree and students whose parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents went to college, multiple definitions are often used to identify first-generation students:
Neither parent earned a bachelor’s degree (federal definition)
One parent earned a bachelor’s degree
No bachelor’s degrees among living parents (focus on those who can provide support to the student)
No bachelor’s degrees among caregivers (considers others in the household beyond biological parents such as stepparent)
No domestic bachelor’s degree among caregivers (degrees from other countries may be less relevant in helping students in the U.S. higher education system)
No bachelor’s degrees earned by caregivers before the student was born (excludes those who earned degrees more recently and may not yet have received some of the more socioeconomic benefits of a college degree)
GradPLUS loans are offered by the federal government to make it more accessible and affordable for people to seek graduate-level education. To receive a loan, students must be a graduate or professional student enrolled at least half-time at an eligible school in a program leading to a graduate or professional degree or certificate; not have an adverse credit history; and meet the general eligibility requirements for federal student aid. The maximum loan amount a student can borrow is the cost of attendance (determined by the higher education institution) minus any other financial assistance the student receives.
Refers to an institution of higher education where Hispanic students constitute at least 25% of the total fulltime undergraduate enrollment. HSIs are designated by the U.S. Department of Education based on specific enrollment criteria related to Hispanic student populations. These institutions receive certain federal funding and resources to support their mission of serving Hispanic students and promoting their success in higher education. There are approximately 600 HSIs located in numerous states across the country including California, Texas, Florida, and New York. The number of states with HSIs vary over time as new institutions receive HSI designation and demographic shifts occur within states.
Emerging Hispanic Serving Institutions (EHSIs) have Hispanic student populations constituting more than 15% but less than 25% of the total fulltime undergraduate enrollment. These institutions are recognized for providing support to Hispanic student populations and often become eligible for full HSI designation in the future.
Refer to individuals who are either immigrants themselves or born in the United States to immigrant parents. This category encompasses a diverse group of students with varying backgrounds, including first-generation immigrants (born abroad who immigrated to the U.S. to live); and second-generation immigrants (U.S.-born individuals with at least one immigrant parent.) The vast majority of immigrant-origin students are U.S. citizens. As of 2018, 68% were citizens by birth and another 16% were citizens by naturalization.
Immigrant-origin students comprise a significant portion of the U.S. student population. In recent years, first- and second-generation immigrant students have estimated to account for 20% to over 30% of college enrollments (in 2021, 5.6 million students, or 31%). Immigrant-origin students drove 80% of the growth in U.S. higher education enrollments between 2000 and 2021.
A student loan in which students receive money to fund their education or training. Students agree via a contract agreement to pay the ISA provider a fixed percentage of their income for a set period of time after they finish school and pass a specific income threshold. They may repay more or less than the amount received, depending on the agreement’s terms. If the student later loses his/her job, the terms typically permit the individual to stop making payments. Although ISA providers often advertise their products as an alternative to loans, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (a federal regulatory agency) has found that ISAs are student loans.
Refers to a rising number higher education institutions with very large enrollments and which commonly focus on flexibility, affordability, accessibility, and teaching and learning. Many of the mega-universities are optimized for working adults and have developed flexible online platforms for learning, often enhanced with artificial intelligence. Examples:
Western Governor’s University (WGU): With over 156,000 students, its competency-based education model enables students to demonstrate skill acquisition and complete courses at their own pace, instead of within fixed credit hours. WGU has developed the Aera Decision Cloud platform to enable AI to predict student outcomes and recommend interventions to faculty.
Arizona State University (ASU): With more than 150,000 students, it has expanded its online platform, ASU Digital Immersion, and with its partnership with OpenAI has launched an AI Innovation Challenge for faculty and staff to promote AI solutions across in all areas on campus.
Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU): With approximately 158,000 students, its AI-powered chatbot “Penny” is designed to advise students on academics, finances, and wellness and has already increased student retention and performance.
Student experiences often differ in a mega-university from a traditional university. Students at a mega-university may never meet their professors because they’re taking asynchronous courses that provide little if any interaction with faculty. Students may also have few, if any, opportunities for interactive experiences on campus.
The role of faculty members may also differ. Institutions like SNHU and WGU have unbundled the role of the faculty member, to instead provide a life coach who stays with the student throughout matriculation. Additional features at these universities include teaching coaches plus expertise in instruction within the faculty such as WGU’s faculty who are dedicated to assessment.
Since 2011, each postsecondary institution participating in Title IV federal student aid programs (enrolling fulltime, first-time degree- or certificate-seeking undergraduate students) has been required to post a net price calculator on its website, in accordance with the Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA), as amended on October 29, 2011. The calculator uses institutional data to provide estimated net price information to current and prospective students and their families based on a student’s individual circumstances. The calculator also allows students to calculate an estimated net price of attendance at the institution (defined as cost of attendance minus grant and scholarship aid) based on what similar students paid in a previous year. Both input and output elements are included in the calculator:
Input elements include data elements to approximate the student’s Expected Family Contribution (EFC), such as income, number in family, and dependency status or factors that estimate dependency status.
Output elements include: Estimated total cost of attendance; Estimated tuition and fees; Estimated room and board; Estimated books and supplies; Estimated other expenses (personal expenses, transportation, etc.); Estimated total grant aid; Estimated net price; Percent of the cohort (full-time, first-time students) that received grant aid; and Caveats and disclaimers, as indicated in the HEA.
ParentPLUS loans are offered by the federal government to make it more accessible and affordable for eligible parents to seek a college-level education. To receive a loan, a parent borrower must (1) have a child who has filled out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid(FAFSA®; (2) be the biological or adoptive parent (or in some cases, the stepparent) of a dependent undergraduate student enrolled at least half-time at an eligible school; (3) not have an adverse credit history; (4) meet general eligibility requirements for federal student aid. Grandparents (unless they have legally adopted the dependent student) and legal guardians are not eligible to receive parent PLUS loans, even if they have had primary responsibility for raising the student.
A structured tool used in skills-based talent management to distinguish varying levels of expertise in a given skill. These frameworks typically define three to five levels of proficiency (five being the most common), enabling consistent assessment and development of talent across functions. Though not universally adopted, many organizations use proficiency frameworks in performance management, career development, and talent acquisition. Assessments often start with employee self-evaluations, followed by manager validation. These evaluations are frequently tied to year-end reviews or career planning.
The modern U.S. student body can no longer be described as traditional high school graduates with the ability to live in dormitories. The study body also includes:
Independent Learners: Some 35% of current students are financially independent of their parents, reflecting a shift towards older, more self-reliant learners.
Student-Parents: About one-third have children of their own, requiring them to balance family responsibilities with academic pursuits.
Working Students: About 60% are employed, with 40% working fulltime while pursuing their education.
Age: Over one-third are over 25 years old.
Serving this increasingly diverse student body requires adaptations by higher education in areas such as academic programs, policy, and support services.
Refers to limited access to college majors. Restrictions typically occur when student demand exceeds the available resources to attract and pay for faculty and related infrastructure needs like classroom space and technology. This practice often involves institutions imposing additional entry requirements, such as Grade Point Average (GPA) thresholds; minimum standardized test score; portfolios or auditions for performance-oriented majors; extra costs (tuition and/or fees); and waitlists. Students may be unaware when they are admitted to a higher education institution that there are additional hurdles to enter their chosen field of study’; admission to a college/university does not guarantee admission to an academic program (major).
A recent study found that restricting student access to certain programs of study is an increasingly common practice, and one that favors students who enter college with both social capital and a high school experience that includes rigorous classes and academic extracurriculars, compared to a highly capable student coming from a high school without college preparatory courses and other important resources. The study finds that the practice of restricting majors impacts and shapes student experiences:
Restrictions on majors have a large impact on what students decide to study.
Restrictions on majors impact some student populations more than others.
The most common restrictions recent graduates experienced when selecting their field of study were academic performance thresholds; i.e., overall GPA, departmental GPA, and test score requirements.
Most of the effect of restrictions happens upstream — discouraging students from applying for majors in which they are interested, rather than downstream — in the form of a rejected application (for every student who applies and is rejected, four more feel discouraged from applying at all).
Reverse transfer is the process by which a student is awarded an associate degree after transferring and completing degree requirements at a four-year institution. Through reverse transfer, students can combine the credits they earn at their four-year school with those they had previously earned at community college and retroactively be awarded an associate degree.
As described in the Data Quality Campaign’s Data 101, all states are required by federal law to produce a report card to help the public understand how students and schools are performing each year. Every state produces an annual report card about school, district, and statewide performance though the report cards are of varying quality and usefulness. The federal “Every Student Succeeds Act” requires that certain information be reported on a state report card, but states have the opportunity to provide additional data based on state and local needs. In many states, clunky formats, missing data, and technical jargon prevent the public from understanding the information available on report cards. Twenty-five states provide the option to translate their report card into a language other than English; and 26 states do not disaggregate student performance by at least one legally required student group, which can hide achievement gaps and the students who need support. The average state report card is written at a grade 15 reading level, making it difficult for all families to understand.
General features and perspectives about state report cards:
They provide information on the types of students that schools and districts educate (e.g., Hispanic students, students with disabilities), how well those students are doing academically, how often students come to school, the school’s financial resources, and what types of qualifications teachers have.
They include information about the measures on a state’s education accountability system along with contextual information about students and schools.
They are required based on the view that everyone deserves to know how the public schools in their communities are doing. When information is difficult to find or understand, parents must cobble together information from different sources. This can breed mistrust between families and the education system serving their children.
They are an opportunity to communicate with parents and the public about state priorities and education goals.
They are an opportunity to present a picture of student and school performance in a one-stop format that states are uniquely positioned to produce and provide.
They can answer questions and inform action.
They can help parents make decisions about their child’s education and help state and local leaders allocate scarce resources.
Stranded credits refer to academic college credit that students have earned but cannot access because their former higher education institution is holding their transcript as collateral for an unpaid balance to the institution. The unpaid balance, often referred to as student debt, can refer to unpaid tuition, unpaid room and board, unpaid parking tickets, and library fees. The outstanding debt often incurs interest, increasing the amount owed by a student over time if unresolved. Students who leave their higher education institution without graduating but owing the institution money are often unaware of the hold on their transcript. They may encounter the hold years later when they request an official transcript for a job, or the debt comes up on a credit report. Holds on transcripts may also result in lost credits for students trying to re-enroll at a different institution. Students cannot access the credits earned at the prior institution until the debt is paid off. Some students then start over, and their prior credits are lost. Policies on transcript holds have been found to disproportionately affect students of color and those from low socio-economic backgrounds.
In K-12 education, refers to any time a student changes schools for reasons other than grade promotion, to include students changing schools during a school year voluntarily (to participate in a new program) or involuntary (being expelled or escaping from bullying). Student mobility is often related to residential mobility, when a family becomes homeless or moves due to changes in a parent’s job.
Transcript holds occur at many higher education institutions when a student incurs unpaid balances for unpaid tuition, room and board, parking tickets, and library fees. The unpaid balance, often referred to as student debt, can additionally incur interest, increasing the amount owed by a student over time if unresolved. Students who leave their higher education institution without graduating but owing the institution money are often unaware of the hold on their transcript. They may encounter the hold years later when they request an official transcript for a job, or the debt comes up on a credit report. Holds on transcripts may also result in lost credits for students trying to re-enroll at a different institution. Students cannot access the credits earned at the prior institution until the debt is paid off. Some students then start over, and their prior credits are lost. Policies on transcript holds have been found to disproportionately affect students of color and those from low socio-economic backgrounds.
The related term, “stranded credits” refers to the academic college credit that students have earned but cannot access because their former higher education institution is holding their transcript as collateral for an unpaid balance to the institution.
Refers to the problem of adjustment – especially accompanied by a temporary drop in grade point average – sometimes encountered during the 1-2 academic terms at a college or university to which a student has transferred. Research has found that a subsequent recovery in grade point average is common.
Individuals who are both working for pay and enrolled in formal learning programs that lead to a recognized credential. They are the majority of part-time students and more than a third of the fulltime student population in the United States.
