A federal policy model established under the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (OBBBA) in 2025 that links eligibility for federal student aid to the post-graduation earnings of program completers. The framework extends the gainful employment concept—historically applied only to for-profit and career training programs—to all Title IV–eligible degree and nondegree programs. Higher education programs must demonstrate that their graduates earn more than peers without equivalent educational attainment (high school diploma or bachelor’s degree, depending on program level) to maintain eligibility for federal loans.

Related Terms: Gainful Employment Rule | Title IV Eligibility | Return on Investment (ROI) in Education | Workforce Pell | Accountability in Higher Education

See Topic Brief: Accountability Framework in Higher Education | Learn & Work Ecosystem Library

Created by the College Board, Advanced Placement (AP) is a program that offers college-level courses and exams students can take in high school. Most, but not all, states have a statewide AP credit policy for their public colleges and universities. Most four-year colleges and universities in the U.S.—and many institutions in more than 100 other countries—grant credit or advanced placement (or both) for qualifying AP Exam scores. According to the College Board, options for earning college credit or advanced placement (or both), depend on the policy of the college:

• Credit: Some colleges use AP scores to offer college credit. Students can graduate from college early and save money on tuition by earning credit for qualifying AP scores. A certain number of credits (usually 120 for a bachelor’s degree) are commonly needed, depending on the college major.
• Advanced placement: At some colleges, students can skip certain introductory courses and gain placement in more advanced courses with qualifying AP scores.

Refers to a federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of age in programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance.

A person, association, committee, or organization that operates a Registered Apprenticeship (RA) program. The sponsor takes on the legal responsibility of ensuring the program operates in compliance with federal and state regulations. Sponsor roles typically cover recruitment, screening, and hiring apprentices—or working with employers to do so. They develop formal agreements with apprentices identifying the length of the program, skills to be learned, the wages to be paid at different points in time, the development of the equal employment opportunity plan, and the required classroom instruction; and work with state apprenticeship agencies (SAAs) or the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) to make sure that their registered programs meet state and federal requirements.

Apprenticeship programs can be sponsored by:

• Employers or a consortium of businesses
• Workforce intermediary (e.g., industry association or a labor-management organization)
• Labor groups
• Employer associations
• Unions
• Agencies
• Colleges
• Committees
• Third-party entities that take on administrative duties related to sponsorship.

To register an apprenticeship, a sponsor submits an application to the applicable registration agency (DOL or appropriate SAA). The application includes a work process schedule that describes the competencies the apprentice will learn and how on the-job training and related instruction will teach those competencies. The application also includes a schedule of wage increases for the apprentice, description of safety measures, and other assurances related to program administration and recordkeeping.

See Topic Brief: Apprenticeship / Apprenticeships | Learn & Work Ecosystem Library

Articulated credit is a process that aligns high school courses with college courses or programs (usually occupational pathways) to allow students to start a college technical major while still in high school and continue in a participating postsecondary institution. Articulated credit courses are approved by the higher education institution as equivalent to introductory-level college courses.  Articulated credit is different from Advanced Placement (AP) credit, which requires passing an end-of-course exam.

Articulated college credit is a process through which high school students can earn college credit by successfully completing certain high school courses. These courses cover learning outcomes, skills, and abilities comparable to those taught in college courses. Establishing articulated college credit programs is a collaborative effort between high schools and colleges. The process typically includes:

1. Course Alignment: High schools collaborate with higher education institutions to align certain high school courses with college-level content. Courses cover similar learning outcomes, skills, and knowledge.
2. Assessment: Students complete the high school course and demonstrate mastery of the material usually through exams, projects, or other assessments.
3. Credit Award: If the student meets the criteria set by the college, they receive college credit. The amount of credit awarded varies by institution and course/program.
4. Transcript/Verification: The college credits earned through articulated credit transfer appear on the student’s college transcript.
5. Benefits: Articulated credit allows students to explore college-level material, potentially save time and money, and gain a head start on their college education and career paths.

A framework used to categorize nearly 4,000 thousand higher education institutions in the United States.  Carnegie Classifications are used in the study of higher education, including in research study design to ensure adequate representation of sampled institutions, students, and/or faculty. First published in 1973, the framework is updated every 3 years to reflect changes among colleges and universities.

There are two types of classifications: (1) Universal classifications are 6 types of organizational groupings and labels given to all degree-granting institutions in the U.S.:  Basic, Undergraduate Instructional Program, Graduate Instructional Program, Enrollment Profile, Undergraduate Profile, Size and Setting. Classifications are based on the data the institutions report to federal sources, including the National Center for Education Statistics and National Science Foundation. (2) Elective includes 2 types that institutions must apply for: Classification for Community Engagement and Classification for Leadership for Public Purpose. These require documentation of institutional policy and practices focusing on areas such as institutional culture and mission, curricular and co-curricular programming, continuous improvement activities, and the recruitment and reward of faculty, staff, and students.

In 2022, the American Council on Education (ACE) began a partnership with the Carnegie Foundation to take stewardship of both the Universal classifications (previously managed by Indiana University-Bloomington), and the Elective classifications. ACE and the Carnegie Foundation are collaborating on the vision and future of the framework including revising the methodology for the Basic classification, adding a Social and Economic Mobility Universal classification, and expanding the suite of Elective classifications.

Catalog Rights refers to an institutional policy that allows students to complete an academic program under the degree requirements that were in effect when they entered the institution, declared a major, or otherwise became subject to a particular academic catalog, provided they meet the institution’s requirements for maintaining those rights (such as continuous enrollment).

Catalog Year refers to the specific edition or academic year of a college or university catalog that governs a student’s academic requirements. A student’s catalog year establishes the curriculum, degree requirements, and academic policies that generally remain in effect throughout the student’s program unless the student chooses or is required to adopt a newer catalog.

Catalog rights are intended to provide academic continuity and fairness by protecting students from changes to graduation requirements after they begin a program. Catalog rights generally do not apply to tuition, fees, or other institutional charges, which colleges and universities may change according to institutional policy unless they offer a guaranteed tuition program or similar pricing policy.

For example, a student who begins a bachelor’s degree under the 2026–2027 catalog may be allowed to graduate under those degree requirements even if the institution later changes its curriculum or general education requirements. However, unless the institution guarantees tuition, the student’s tuition and fees may increase during enrollment.

These terms are most commonly used in the United States. However, many higher education systems globally have comparable policies that allow students to complete programs under the academic requirements in effect when they began their studies.

• In Canada, institutions commonly refer to the academic calendar.
• In the United Kingdom, students typically follow the program regulations or student handbook that apply when they enter a program.
• Universities in Australia and New Zealand often use the terms course handbook or handbook year.
• Across much of Europe, institutions generally provide transition arrangements that allow students to complete their programs under earlier curriculum requirements when major changes are introduced.

Although the terminology and legal framework vary, the underlying principle of providing continuity and fairness for students is widely recognized globally.

In research, provides evidence of the effectiveness of a program, intervention, or policy change on one or more desired outcomes. Well-designed studies will provide a credible simulation of the program, intervention, or policy change (“solution”) with an unbiased comparison group because it is not possible to observe the difference between outcomes for those receiving a solution, given concerns those outcomes would have happened had the same people not received this solution during the same timeframe.

Civic Education Centers are academic units or programs within colleges and universities that emphasize the study of Western intellectual traditions, classical texts, civic philosophy, and foundational concepts in political and moral thought. These centers typically focus on curriculum in history, philosophy, literature, and civics, often through reading-based seminars and interdisciplinary coursework.

In recent years, several public universities in the United States have established such centers through state funding or governing-board initiatives. Their stated purposes commonly include strengthening civic literacy, encouraging debate on foundational ideas, and broadening perspectives in undergraduate education. Governance structures, faculty hiring practices, and curricular roles vary across institutions.

The federal Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) defines competitive integrated employment (CIE) as work performed on a full- or part-time basis for which an individual with disabilities is:

• Compensated at or above minimum wage and comparable to the customary rate paid by the employer to employees without disabilities performing similar duties and with similar training and experience.
• Receiving the same level of benefits provided to other employees without disabilities in similar positions.
• At a location where the employee interacts with other individuals without disabilities.
• Presented opportunities for advancement similar to other employees without disabilities in similar positions.

The Office of Employment Disability Policy (ODEP) operates the CIE Transformation Hub to collect resources across the federal government that are working to increase the participation of people with disabilities in CIE, such as:

• VOICE (Visionary Opportunities to Increase Competitive Employment)
• Veterans RICE (Returning to Integrated Competitive Employment)
• NEON (National Expansion of Employment Opportunities Network)
• ASPIRE (Advancing State Policy Integration for Recovery and Employment).

ODEP resources provide guidance, policy information, and evidence-based best practices used by people with disabilities and their families, employers, employment service providers, and state agencies. Since 2012, ODEP has provided technical assistance on aligning state policies across multiple service systems.

Various credit transfer options are available to help individuals receive credit for what they know. Credit by exam is a process that allows students to earn college credit typically by taking subject-specific tests.

• At the K-12 level, credit by exam (CBE) is a method for individuals to demonstrate proficiency in grade level or course content (often at the K-12 level). Some state policies (for example, the Texas Education Code -TEC- §28.023) allow students to accelerate a grade level or to earn credit for a course based on credit by examination. Credit-by-examination assessments (CBEs) are typically approved by a local school district board of trustees for their district. CBEs are administered by the district or test provider in accordance with local district policy. Scores are reported directly to the school district and/or student.
• At the higher education level, some higher education institutions offer their own challenge exams. These exams are known by terms such as institutional exams, credit by exam, departmental exams, or proficiency exams. The assessment process provides academic departments the flexibility to tailor exams to fit specific course curricula, give program faculty confidence the exams reflect an appropriate level of academic rigor, and provides faculty direct control of the assessment process.
• An intermediary, the College-Level Examination Program® (CLEP) helps individuals receive college credit for what they already know. CLEP offers 34 exams that cover introductory level college course material. Exams are available in History and Social Science; Composition and Literature; Science and Mathematics; Business; and World Languages. Exams cost around $100 (exam plus test center’s administration fee). This amount is commonly used to compare to the cost of a college course. For military service members, the exam cost may be free. More than 2,900 U.S. colleges and universities award credit for CLEP. A college’s CLEP credit policy explains which CLEP exams are accepted by the institution, what CLEP score is needed to receive college credit, and how many credits are awarded for a particular CLEP exam. The policy may also include other guidelines, such as the maximum number of credits a student can earn through CLEP. With a passing score on an CLEP exam, an individual could earn 3 or more college credits at many U.S. colleges and universities.
• Some third-party organizations offer courses of study that can result in individuals receiving credit transfer from a higher education institution when they successfully complete the course. Courses are evaluated by intermediaries such as the American Council on Education or National College Credit Recommendation Service (NCCRS). Over 1,500 accredited institutions in the U.S. accept credit earned by passing a course that is pre-approved (recommended) by ACE or NCCRS. The courses are evaluated for quality by a team of university faculty and since each course has been successfully evaluated, they can be recommended for credit transfer.
  • The American Council on Education (ACE) evaluates nontraditional forms of learning for transfer credit recommendation. Thousands of colleges and universities in the U.S. use ACE recommendations to determine transfer course equivalencies to their institutions.
  • The National College Credit Recommendation Service (NCCRS) evaluates non-collegiate learning experiences for possible college credit recommendations. Their mission is to provide access to a variety of educational opportunities to nontraditional students and adult learners by recognizing learning that occurs outside of the college classroom. NCCRS evaluated courses undergo extensive review to ensure academic rigor and high instructional quality. College professors (serving as subject matter experts) determine if the courses are equivalent to similar college level courses and if credit recommendations are warranted.

Refers to an immigration designation historically used in the United States that allows certain temporary visa holders—particularly international students and exchange visitors—to remain in the country for the period of time required to complete an authorized educational, training, or exchange program, rather than being admitted until a specific fixed date.

Duration of Status has been commonly associated with F-1 international students and J-1 exchange visitors. Under this approach, an individual’s lawful status is tied to continued participation in and compliance with the requirements of an approved program. Educational institutions and program sponsors document enrollment, program changes, transfers, extensions, and other status-related information through federal systems such as the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS).

The concept recognizes that the length of education and training programs may not always be predictable when an individual begins a program. Students may require additional time because of the structure of a degree program, research and dissertation requirements, changes in academic pathways, transfers between institutions, or progression from one level of education to another.

Duration of Status is particularly relevant to higher education because program duration and actual time to degree are not necessarily the same. Although a bachelor’s degree is commonly described as a four-year degree, many students take longer than four years to complete one. Graduate and professional education can take considerably longer; doctoral programs, for example, frequently require five, six, or more years. Policies that establish a fixed period of authorized stay may therefore require extension processes for students whose normal academic progress extends beyond that period. This distinction is important when considering how immigration policy, institutional practices, and the realities of degree completion intersect for international students.

Governor Executive Orders are formal directives issued by the governor of a U.S. state to direct the operations of state government. These orders carry the force of law unless overturned by legislation or judicial review. While they do not require legislative approval, they must conform to the state constitution and statutes and can be challenged in court or overridden by legislation. These orders can establish policies, create commissions or task forces, mandate interagency coordination, allocate emergency resources, or implement legislative mandates.

Governor Executive Orders differ from Federal Executive Orders in that they are issued by state governors and apply only within their respective states. These orders address state-specific issues, including workforce development, education, and economic policies, often aligning with federal initiatives but tailored to local needs.

Executive orders trace back to colonial governors and have gained formal recognition through evolving state constitutions. Traditionally used for emergency management or routine administrative actions, they have increasingly become instruments of strategic policymaking. In the 21st century—especially since 2020—their use has expanded significantly in areas such as workforce readiness, education reform, and digital infrastructure.

In the learn-and-work ecosystem, governors may use executive orders to launch statewide skills initiatives, create task forces, mandate cross-agency collaboration, and/or prioritize workforce development efforts. Executive orders can fast-track actions in areas like credential transparency, apprenticeship expansion, and digital learning records.

See Topic: Governor Executive Orders in the Learn-And-Work Ecosystem | Learn & Work Ecosystem Library

Also referred to as automatic admission or assured admission, this term refers to a policy in place at many state public institutions of higher education which provides a direct path into college for state residents who meet specific criteria.  Criteria can include having earned a high school diploma or GED, satisfying a set grade point average threshold or other academic achievement metric, and additional requirements unique to each state and institution.  These direct admission policies are intended to boost enrollment while encouraging residents to remain in-state for their continued education.  Students are still expected to submit applications and complete required documentation for the institution they wish to attend. 

The prevailing view in building a healthy learn-and-work ecosystem—and a robust economy—is that higher education must be aligned with the needs of today’s and tomorrow’s workforce. When higher education programs align with workforce needs and meet industry demands they are viewed as “aligned.”

Increasingly, many higher education institutions are using industry data to inform their planning, implementation, and updating of courses programs. Industry data can provide insight into the current and future direction of the workforce and the skills needed for specific roles. The use of industry data by higher education contributes to efforts to align education and employer interests.

Key approaches to alignment include:

• Aligning academic program outcomes with in-demand skills needed by employers.
• Institutions offering reskilling and upskilling courses and programs (often short-term) which allow employees to learn skills needed to help prepare individuals to fill high-demand, open positions.
• Institutions making innovation and employer partnerships core to their culture.
• Institutions embracing models that serve diverse populations of students well (e.g., career advising/navigation, work-based learning, flexible scheduling).
• Institutions measuring main outcomes to inform continuous improvement (e.g., completion rates, return on investment, equity in access and attainment).
• Working closely with policymakers, especially at the state level, in collaborations between educators and business leaders to participate in funding, building, and adapting the educational infrastructure for the future of work. These efforts can help policymakers better understand how to expand access to higher education and workforce training programs to help state and local economies flourish while encouraging greater alignment between higher education and current workforce needs.

These approaches help ensure that individuals have a clear pathway to opportunity while aligning workforce demands with talent supply.

See:  Higher Education & Employer Partnerships | Learn & Work Ecosystem Library

Refers to academic programs—typically degree or certificate programs—that enroll or graduate a number of students below thresholds set by a state higher education authority, system office, or institutional governing board. These thresholds are used to monitor program viability, ensure efficient use of public resources, and guide decisions about program support, consolidation, redesign, or discontinuation. While definitions vary by state, low-producing programs are commonly identified through multi-year enrollment or completion minimums (e.g., average annual graduates over a 3–5 year period). Programs flagged as low-producing often undergo a formal review process that considers workforce demand, regional needs, economic development priorities, program quality, cost, and mission alignment before any action is taken (continuation, restructuring, or closure).

Examples of State policy language:

• Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB): A low-producing program is a degree program that “fails to meet minimum standards for numbers of graduates—typically fewer than 25 graduates over 5 years at the bachelor’s and master’s levels, and fewer than 15 graduates over 5 years at the doctoral level.” Programs under review must justify continuation based on workforce need, institutional mission, or demonstrate a plan for improvement.
• Virginia State Council of Higher Education for Virginia (SCHEV):  A low-producing program is one that “does not meet established productivity thresholds over a rolling 5-year period.” Bachelor’s programs are expected to produce at least 7 graduates per year (average), master’s at least 5 graduates, and doctoral programs at least 3 graduates. Programs falling below the threshold must submit a productivity review and improvement plan, merge with another program, or be phased out.
• North Carolina Community College System (NCCCS): A curriculum program is low-producing “when enrollment fails to meet viability benchmarks over a 3-year period.” Programs with fewer than 10 completions in 3 years may be recommended for termination unless the college demonstrates strong local or regional labor-market justification.
• Colorado Department of Higher Education (CDHE): Colorado identifies low-demand or low-productivity programs through its statutory program review process. Programs that “do not meet minimum enrollment or completion standards, or that demonstrate limited alignment with state workforce needs,” may be flagged for corrective action. Institutions must report how such programs contribute to state priorities or detail steps for improvement, consolidation, or discontinuation.
• Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education (CPE): Considers a program low-producing if it “fails to meet minimum thresholds for average annual degrees conferred over a 5-year period”—generally 10 graduates for bachelor’s programs and 5 for master’s. Programs not meeting standards undergo a review that evaluates costs, demand, duplication, and alignment with statewide strategic objectives.

Refers to federal regulation (90/10 rule) overseen by the U.S. Department of Education that governs for-profit higher education institutions. The rule is a proxy for measuring educational value at proprietary institutions with the intent to ensure that schools do not overly rely on federal aid and to encourage diversification of funding. Through a cap on federal funding, a proprietary school can receive a maximum of 90% of its revenue from federal financial aid sources such as Pell Grants and federal loans. The remaining 10% of revenue a proprietary school can receive must come from alternative sources, excluding federal funds. Federal policy subsequently updated the 90/10 rule to require proprietary institutions to receive at least 10% of their revenue from nonfederal educational assistance sources every fiscal year. This change was made to enhance financial stability and accountability within the for-profit education sector.

Refers to the systemic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of particular demographic groups in an occupation or field of employment. Demographic groups include racial/ethnic groups, immigrants, individuals with prison records, and individuals with disabilities.

Racial occupational segregation is the degree to which members of different racial groups are distributed unequally across different types of jobs.  In the U.S., research shows that Black and Latinx workers are overrepresented in underpaying jobs, dangerous jobs, and jobs with fewer benefits.

Historically, occupational segregation is the result of policy and practice—by governments (federal and state), employer hiring, accessibility to education, and societal discrimination.

Related terms: Hiring bias, race-based earning disparities

Refers to companies that help higher education institutions set up virtual programs in exchange for a large slice of the tuition revenue. A more specific definition: For-profit, third-party companies that enter into a contract with an institution of higher education to provide bundled products and services to develop, deliver, or provide managed programs, when the services provided include recruitment and marketing.

OPMs have increased over the last decade. Through contracts with higher education institutions, OPMs are often in charge of recruiting students into online programs and paid only if those students enroll. This factor has led to situations in which OPMs pressure students into signing up, sometimes using deceitful practices (some represent themselves as institution, not company officials). Students, therefore, are unaware that an outside party is recruiting them into what could be a potentially poor-quality program.

In response to growing concern about OPMs, beginning in the fall of 2023, the U.S. Department of Education expanded its interpretation of federal regulations to place OPMs under closer scrutiny. Under this guidance, many OPMs are considered “third-party servicers,” subjecting them to a new set of rules.

Some states are also considering barring such contracts through legislation. In May 2024, Minnesota became the first state to ban its public colleges and universities from tuition-share contracting with OPMs, effective January 2025. Many lessons learned from Minnesota’s policy work can inform other states wishing to pursue legislation that restricts tuition-sharing arrangements:

• Faculty unions which represent educators at the state’s public institutions must be engaged in these considerations.
• Barring OPM tuition-sharing raises related concerns such as barring OPMs from the rights to faculty members’ intellectual property and from having governance power at institutions.
• Legislation must address the role of institution governing boards in the review of OPM contracts.
• Legislative language must consider implications that could apply to other vendors/contractors that institutions work with, such as ed tech companies that offer online platforms where students can access course materials, submit assignments, and receive grades.

A system of education and training that supports both access and opportunity through multiple, flexible pathways. Such a system enables individuals to enter and move through academic, vocational, and professional education without encountering structural barriers or “dead ends.” Key characteristics of a permeable system include:

• Accessible programs for all individuals regardless of background.
• Clear progression routes that facilitate transitions between types and levels of education (e.g., from vocational training to higher education).
• Recognition of prior learning and experience, enabling learners to build on what they already know.
• Interconnected academic and vocational pathways, ensuring that both are valued and linked within the system.

Permeability goes beyond access—it ensures that learners have real opportunities to advance, transfer, and combine education and training experiences. Both components are essential: access alone is insufficient if opportunities to progress or switch paths are limited.

An exemplary model is Switzerland, which has, since the 1970s, built a highly permeable education system. Young people can begin with an upper-secondary apprenticeship and later earn advanced academic degrees, including PhDs. Swiss students who follow mixed educational paths—combining vocational and academic routes—tend to achieve the highest employment and wage outcomes.

Related Terms: Lifelong Learning, Career Pathways, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), Vocational Education and Training (VET), Dual Education System

Refer to various types of employer recognitions that acknowledge the strengths, achievements, and contributions of employees, with the goal of fostering a sense of value and appreciation of employees. Approaches often include extra paid time off, gift cards, public acknowledgments, and peer nominations for recognition.

According to a Deloitte study, the percentage of respondents that rated their organization’s recognition and word programs “very effective” achieved the following results:

• Alignment with business goals 12%
• Retaining talent 8%
• Attracting talent 6%
• Growing and developing talent 5%
• Motivating talent 3%

Remedial education (aka developmental education) is required instruction and support for students who are assessed by their institution of choice as being academically underprepared for postsecondary education. The intent of is to educate students in the skills required to complete gateway courses, and enter and complete a program of study. Remediation at the postsecondary level is delivered at both community college and university campuses although some states have established policy to limit public university provision of remedial education. The bulk of remedial courses focus on advancing underprepared students’ literacy (English and reading) skills or math skills. Students are often placed into remedial courses through placement tests such as the ACT, ACCUPLACER, or COMPASS assessments. Typically, each college or university sets its own score thresholds for determining whether a student must enroll in remedial courses. Some states are moving toward a uniform standard for remedial placement cut scores.

A detailed, machine-readable, standardized representation of skills used in education and in employer hiring processes. RSDs allow educational institutions to design curricula aligned with employer needs to ensure that learners acquire relevant and marketable skills. RSDs allow employers to create job descriptions that attract candidates with the specific competencies needed for a role. This level of specificity can expedite the hiring process and enhance quality matches between job seekers and employers. RSDs typically have the following components:

• Name: Short, clear, and concise.
• Skill statement:  Sufficient context to determine how skill is in alignment with Lightcast labor market skills.
• Category: Skill statement describes how it may be applied for a specific task, occupation, or need.
• Keywords/Detailed Occupations: Provides information that connects the skill to collections, keywords, employers, alignment to the Standard Occupational Classification system, professional standards and certifications, and/or alignment to Lightcast Open Skills Taxonomy

RSDs build on Credential Engine’s Credential Transparency Description Language or CTDL-ASN that enables skill authors to publish definitions that can be referenced from digital credentials, pathways, and job profiles.

RSDs are authored by the owners (providers) of skills.

Shared governance is a collaborative approach to decision-making in which multiple stakeholders—including educators, administrators, employees, and sometimes students or external partners— work together to guide policies, programs, and priorities. In the learn-and-work ecosystem, shared governance extends beyond traditional higher education structures to include employer-educator partnerships, workforce boards, and intermediary organizations that work together to align education, workforce development and policy goals. Shared governance is also a widely recognized model of decision-making in nursing, between nurses and nurse leaders.

The shared governance model is rooted in democratic ideals and the value of participatory decision-making. While it has deep roots in the academic world, these models are also evident in collaborative management, worker councils, and co-determination in labor movements. Its extension into the broader learn-and-work ecosystem reflects growing recognition that no single sector can solve complex workforce and education challenges alone. Collaboration across sectors has become a practical necessity to respond to rapid economic shifts, technological change, and evolving learner needs. There are also increasing questions about the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in shared governance.

Related terms or concepts include:

• Co-governance
• Collaborative leadership
• Stakeholder engagement
• Participatory decision-making
• Ecosystem stewardship

See: Shared Governance in the Learn & Work Ecosystem — Including AI Impacts | Learn & Work Ecosystem Library

Refers to governance structures established in most states in the United States to develop and implement postsecondary education policy. Policies typically focus on aligning state postsecondary education policy with state and federal statutes; administering academic, financial aid, and workforce programs to include the review and approval of academic programs and research centers; commissioning and conducting research and analysis and completing data reports; and setting tuition rates, administering funding formulas, and allocating funds. Governors often appoint their Chief Operating Officers (CEOs).

State Systems of Higher Education occur in states which centralize governance under boards that oversee multiple higher education institutions within the state. Functions include managing campus systems and individual institutions; and making decisions related to funding, policies, and overall coordination.

Coordinating Boards serve as a liaison between state government and the governing boards of individual higher education institutions. Functions include fostering collaboration and alignment among individual institutions.

Refers to the practice of some company managers offering flexible work to their own teams to retain talent, often going against company rules which have “return to work” mandates or employees will lose their job.

Alternative or related terms for this practice include:

• Quiet Flexibility – informal flexibility granted by managers without formal approval / sanction.
• Shadow Remote Work – used informally to describe when remote work continues unofficially despite formal policies.
• Policy Discretion – neutral HR term for how managers interpret and enforce (or not) workplace rules.
• Decentralized Compliance – organizational behavior–focused, referring to uneven enforcement of top-down mandates.
• Managerial Discretion – the authority individual managers may use to interpret or selectively enforce corporate policies, including return-to-office (RTO) mandates.
• Policy Drift – when the formal policy is not enforced as originally intended over time. 

The practice of systematically exploring possible futures in order to better prepare for change, uncertainty, and emerging opportunities.  Unlike traditional strategic planning, which often assumes the future will be a relatively predictable extension of the present, strategic foresight recognizes that social, economic, technological, political, and demographic changes can alter conditions rapidly and in unexpected ways.

Strategic foresight often includes activities such as trend analysis, horizon scanning, scenario planning, systems thinking, and future-oriented strategy development.

Strategic foresight does not attempt to predict the future. Rather, it helps leaders examine assumptions, identify emerging signals and trends, consider different plausible futures, and test how current strategies, programs, and business models might perform under changing conditions. The goal is to improve decision-making in the present while increasing an organization’s ability to adapt over time.

The practice has become more important in an era of rapid technological and social change, where traditional planning models based primarily on past patterns may no longer be sufficient. Examples include universities developing future workforce scenarios, governments studying the long-term implications of automation, employers planning for multigenerational workforces, and foundations investing in future-ready learning systems.

Strategic planning often asks, “Where do we want to go?” Strategic foresight adds an additional question: “What futures might we need to be ready for?”

Refers to a concept promulgated by the National Association of Higher Education Systems (NASH), on behalf of its network of 51 higher education systems working collaboratively to address critical issues in higher education. The concept is founded in the recognition that systems working together are greater than the sum of their parts.  The core of their commitment is to leverage their power to convene and facilitate, along with their governing and policy-making authority, to build collaborations to support students and campuses—rather than trying to mediate competitive actions.

Refer to the translation of research results to practice, policy, business, and public opinion. The pathways model recognizes that multiple pathways are needed to enable researchers, startups, and aspiring entrepreneurs to move their ideas from the research laboratory to the market and society. Though the term is often used in the biomedical and behavioral health fields, it applies to many fields.

Refers to legislation allowing all students in a state, regardless of immigration status, to access in-state tuition at public colleges and universities, and state financial aid at both public and private institutions. These laws recognize the pivotal role colleges and universities can play in advancing policy change locally, as well as implementing legislation to ensure the safety and support of DACA, undocumented, refugee, international, and other immigrant-origin students and staff. Nearly half the states in America have some kind of tuition equity law. A report by the Presidents’ Alliance on Higher Education and Immigration partnered with the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) and the American Immigration Council (AIC) found that immigrant-origin students account for nearly one-third of all domestic students in U.S. higher education. The Higher Ed Immigration Portal offers comprehensive guides and resources at the federal and state levels.

Woke has evolved to mean awareness of discrimination and progressive social and political ideas that promote diversity, inclusion, and liberal values.

Anti-woke refers to a movement that opposes progressive social and political ideas, especially those that promote diversity, inclusion, and liberal values.  Proponents of the anti-woke movement claim that learning about or seeing marginalized groups will negatively impact society.

In the United States, changing public and political views regarding diversity-focused initiatives have increasingly influenced higher education policy. Several states have enacted legislation or governing-board policies that revise how public colleges and universities may address topics related to race, identity, inclusion programs, and campus activism. These actions include restrictions on funding for diversity-related offices or programming, limits on certain classroom content or training activities, revised general education curricula, and new regulations governing student protests and guest speakers.

At the same time, some states have promoted new academic units emphasizing civic education, Western intellectual traditions, or classical curricula. These developments reflect broader debates about the role of public universities, academic freedom, institutional governance, and the balance between state oversight and campus autonomy. Because public higher education systems are shaped by state law and governing boards, policy changes in one state can influence approaches adopted in others.